As the act of guiding or directing others to a course of action through persuasion or influence.
Leadership can be occurred with intentional or without intent.
All managers and administrators are leaders but not all leaders are managers or administrators.
TYPES OF LEADERS
CHARISMATIC (Natural) LEADERS: This type of leader may or may not have made an intentional effort to be placed in the influencing role . The person may charismatic because of charm, wealth, wit, appearance, intelligence or combination of these qualities. Charisma sometimes escapes explanations and understanding, so that we may not always know why certain people are identified by their peers as the ones who guide and direct.
POSITIONAL (Appointed) LEADERS: The positional leader is placed in a power position as the result of an election or appointment. E.g. : Prince
Positional leaders should recognised the natural leaders in their organisations to get things done quicker.
· The most preferred leadership situation occurs when the charismatic leader also the positional leader.
STYLES MODELS OF LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT
Leadership and management styles vary as much as personalities vary. Each individual in a leadership role has his or her own mode of operation, and each director’s style has certain unique characteristics
Leadership theories can be classified in three approaches according to a chronological order.
TRAITS THEROIES (1920-1945): The first approach focused on traits as characteristics of effective leaders.
· Physical Traits : Leadership would be positively related to age, gender, height, weight, and appearance.
· Intellectual Traits: E.g. Decisiveness, judgmental ability, knowledge and verbal ability. Simonton (1985) argued that leaders do not exceed their followers in intellectual ability by a wide range.
· Personality Traits: e.g. Social class, inheritance
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES (1946-1965): The second approach dealt with the major types of the preferred behaviour that a good leader demonstrated and exhibited. In other words this approach was concerned with the way in which effective leaders behave.
· Ohio State Studies: (late 1940) These studies suggested that situational factors should be considered to be integrated into the theory. (no single leadership style is effective in all situations, and that the effectiveness of leadership style was situation specific.
· University Of Michigan Studies: (also late 1940) The Michigan group isolated two following dimensions of leadership behaviour:
1. Employee-oriented: Leadership behaviour that emphasises interpersonal relations and is interested in the needs of their followers and individual differences among them.
2. Production-oriented: Leadership behavior that emphasises the technical or task aspect of the job and is concerned with the accomplishment of their group’s task.
· Autocratic-Democratic Continuum Model: This model theory was developed by Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) The theory proposed that there was a relationship between the degree of authority used and the amount of freedom available to followers in reaching a decision.
· The Managerial Grid Theory: Blake and Mouton (1964) presented their theory of leadership in the form a managerial grid. The components which serve as the basis for the grid are ‘concern for people’ and ‘concern for production’.
CONTINGENCY THEORIES (after 1965) These theories were based on behavioural approach of leadership that sought to integrate both behavioural dimensions and situational determinants to explain effective leadership. In order words, they suggested that leadership behaviours determined leadership style and style effectiveness was determined according to situation.
· Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Fiedler (1967) developed the first comprehensive contingency model for leadership which showed the situational nature of effective leadership. It assumed that effective group performance depended on the proper match between the leader’s style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation gave control and influence to the leader. He considered three contingency dimensions:
1. Leader-member relations: Good relationship result in respect and trust by followers, and group cooperation and effort.
2. Task structure: The degree to which the followers’ jobs are structured or unstructured.
3. Position power: The degree of influence a leader has over power variable such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotion, and salary increases.
He also developed the Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) scale to measure behavior ( task or person oriented) He stated (1967) that effective leaders need to choose appropriate leadership style based on the favorablness of situations. He suggested that it would be more promising to teach indivudual to recognize the conditions under which he or she can perform best and modify the situation to suit his/her leadership style.
PATH-GOAL MODEL
House(1971) has proposed a contingency theory for leadership that integrates the expentancy model of motivation with the Ohio State studies. This theory focused on the role of the leader in facilitating group members toward achieving particular goals.
Leadership behaviors and follower’s needs and interests were crucial factors which were similar to consideration and initiating structure classified by the Ohio State studies. The difference between this theory and the Ohio State studies was that it sought to look at the situation in relation to two behavior dimensions.
This theory proposed that consideration is the most helpful to subordinates in structured situations and less helpful in unstructured ones; and that initiating structure will lead to greater satisfaction when the task are ambigious or stressfull than when they are higly structured and well laid out. Where the task to be done are not clear, subordinates appreciate the leader clarifying the path to goal achievement. High consideration, on the other hand, results in employee satisfaction when subordinates are performing structure or routine tasks.
CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL OF LEADERSHIP
Chelladurai (1978) proposed a multidimesional model of leadership developed on the basis of leadership theories and their effectiveness. The basic assumption of this model was that the performance outcomes and satisfaction could be achieved by effective leader behaviors which, in turn, are modified by antecedents or existing conditions. Namely, the leader is expected to vary the leader behaviors according to two sets of equally potent and at times conflicting forces-situational demands and members preferences.
However, this model should be applied primarily to the athletic setting rather than the administrative setting since a situation of this theory, the member preference, is related to team work cohesiveness of athletic teams is determined by the member preference, and determines success of athletic teams.
MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF LEADERSHIP
Burns (1978) identified two kinds of leadership styles : transactional and transformational leadership style based on kinds of motives and needs of the followers. According to motivational situations that the followers have, leaders are adaptive to two leadership styles; transactional and transformational.
Transactional style stressed basic and extrinsic motives and needs such as physical, security, social and ego needs whereas transformational style focused on high-order, more intrinsic motives and needs including esteem, achievement, autonomy, self-actualization, and competence. Thus, transactional style is effective in the situation where followers work for the accomplishment of extrinsic and baisc motives and needs.
HERSEY AND BLANCHARD’S SITUATIONAL THEORY
This theory identified the terms ‘’ task behavior’’ and relationship behavior’’:
TASK BEHAVIOR: The extent to which leaders are likely to organize and define the role of the members of their groups; to explain what activities each is to do when, where and how tasks are to be accomplished; characterized by endeavoring to establish well-defined patterns of organzation, channels of communication and ways of getting jobs accomplished.
RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOR: The extent to which leaders are likely to maintain personel relationships between themselves and members of their group( followers) by opening up channels of communication, providing socioemotional support ‘’ psychological strokes and facilitating behaviors’’
Four basic leader behavior quadrants:
DIRECTING: High task and low relationship
COACHING: High task and high relationship
SUPPORTING High relationship and low task
DELEGATING Low relationship and low task
1. DIRECTING (S1) Provide specific instruction and closely supervise performance.
2. COACHING (S2) Explain decisions and provide opportunity for clarification.
3. SUPPORTING. (S3) Share ideas and facilitate in making decision.
4. DELEGATING (S4) Turn over responsibility for decisions and implementation.
Analyze situation before taking action
Understand and appreciate demands of followers
Appraise constrains and limitations
Leadership Styles
1. Directing
2. Coaching
3. Supporting
4. Delegating
‘Leadership is not measured by what happens when you are present but by what happens when you are not there.’
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
1. Intellectual stimulation: inspired by leaders that challenge and inspire intellectually --- look at things differently.
2. Individual consideration: treat people individually, not stuck on policy considers on an individual basis, develop individual workshops and opportunities.
3. Inspirational: unlike sheep, follow out of inspirational.
4. Idealized influence: charismatic, people have confidence in you.
How to Make a Winner
1. Tell what to do
2. Show what to do
3. Let them try
4. Observe performance
5. Praise progress or re-direct
DIMENSIONS OF LEADERSHIP
1. Who the leader is? -------style
2. Who the followers are? -----can you read your people?
3. Where the leadership occurring?------ top down? Or bottom up? --everyone is responsible for some leadership.
4. What goals and objectives are intended to be achieved by the leadership?
PES 402 ADMINISTRATION & MANAGEMENT IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS